Chapter 6 New Questions And Ideas

Anagha’s School Trip

School trips to historical cities like Varanasi offer opportunities to learn about significant figures and places from the past, such as the Buddha and Sarnath. This chapter explores the emergence of new philosophical and religious ideas around 2500 years ago, a time of rapid social change.

The Story Of The Buddha

Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, was the founder of Buddhism. He was born approximately 2500 years ago. This period was marked by significant changes, including the rise of powerful kingdoms (mahajanapadas) and the development of new cities and altered village life (as discussed in earlier chapters).

Amidst these societal transformations, many thinkers of the time sought to understand these changes and find deeper meaning in life.

Gautama belonged to a small gana (republic or tribe) known as the Sakya gana and was a kshatriya (warrior class). Seeking knowledge, he left the comforts of his home in his youth. He spent several years wandering, meeting with other thinkers, and engaging in discussions.

Eventually, he decided to pursue his own path to realization. He meditated for extended periods under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar. Here, he attained enlightenment. After this profound experience, he became known as the Buddha, meaning 'the Wise One'.

The Buddha then traveled to Sarnath, near Varanasi. It was here that he taught his message for the first time.

This structure, known as a stupa, was built at Sarnath to commemorate the place where the Buddha delivered his first sermon.

For the rest of his life, the Buddha traveled on foot, spreading his teachings to people from place to place, until he passed away at Kusinara.

The Teachings of the Buddha

The core of the Buddha's teachings focused on the nature of human existence:

• He taught that life is inherently full of suffering and unhappiness.
• He identified the cause of this suffering as cravings and desires, which are often insatiable. He referred to this constant craving as tanha or thirst.
• The Buddha taught that this suffering and craving could be overcome by following a path of moderation in everything, suggesting a middle way.

Beyond philosophical concepts, the Buddha also emphasized ethical conduct:

• He encouraged people to be kind and compassionate.
• He stressed the importance of respecting the lives of others, including animals, reflecting a principle of non-violence.
• He believed in the principle of karma – the results of one's actions, whether good or bad, influence one's life in the present and future existences.

To make his message accessible to everyone, the Buddha taught in the language commonly spoken by ordinary people, which was Prakrit. The language used to compose the Vedas, in contrast, was Old or Vedic Sanskrit.

The Buddha encouraged his followers to think for themselves and critically evaluate his teachings rather than accepting them blindly.

The Story Of Kisagotami

The famous story of Kisagotami illustrates a key teaching of the Buddha. Kisagotami was a woman overwhelmed with grief after her son died and sought help to bring him back to life. The Buddha asked her to bring mustard seeds from a house where no one had ever died. Kisagotami searched everywhere but found that death was a universal experience; every family had experienced the loss of a loved one.

Answer:

Upanishads

Around the same time as the Buddha, or slightly earlier, other thinkers were also grappling with profound questions about life, death, and the universe. Some sought answers about life after death, while others pondered the purpose of sacrifices.

Many of these thinkers believed in the existence of something permanent and eternal in the universe that would persist beyond death. They identified this as the atman (the individual soul) and the brahman (the universal soul). Their core belief was that ultimately, the individual soul and the universal soul are one.

These philosophical ideas were recorded in texts known as the Upanishads. The Upanishads are part of the later Vedic texts (composed after the Rigveda). The word 'Upanishad' literally means 'approaching and sitting near', reflecting the nature of these texts as containing conversations and dialogues between teachers and students exploring philosophical concepts.

Upanishadic Thinkers and Participants

Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, primarily brahmins and rajas. While rare, there are mentions of women thinkers, like Gargi, known for her learning and participation in debates in royal courts. Generally, poor people had limited involvement in these discussions. A notable exception was Satyakama Jabala, named after his slave mother. His strong desire for knowledge led him to be accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher, and he became a well-known thinker. Many ideas from the Upanishads were later elaborated upon by the famous philosopher Shankaracharya.

Six Schools Of Indian Philosophy

Over centuries, India developed six major systems of philosophy, which continue to influence scholarly discourse today. These are known as:

1. Vaishesika (founded by sage Konada)
2. Nyaya (founded by sage Gotama)
3. Samkhya (founded by sage Kapila)
4. Yoga (founded by sage Patanjali)
5. Purva Mimansa (founded by sage Jaimini)
6. Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa (founded by sage Vyasa)

These systems evolved over many generations, with contributions from various thinkers. Despite apparent distinctions, scholars note an underlying harmony in their approach to understanding truth (Box 6.1 quotes Friedrich Max Muller).

The Wise Beggar

The story from the Chhandogya Upanishad about the wise beggar illustrates a key Upanishadic idea – the unity of the individual soul with the universal soul. Two sages, Shaunaka and Abhipratarin, knowledgeable in the concept of the universal soul filling the entire world, initially refused to share food with a beggar. The beggar, by arguing that since the universal soul fills everything, it also fills him, and therefore denying him food is denying food to the universal soul, convinced the sages of the truth of his statement and their mistake. This dialogue emphasizes the interconnectedness of all beings and the presence of the universal soul in everyone.

Panini, The Grammarian

Around the same historical period (about 2500 years ago) that new religious ideas were emerging, other scholars were also making significant contributions. One such figure was Panini, a renowned grammarian who developed a comprehensive grammar for Sanskrit.

Panini systematically arranged vowels and consonants in a special order and used them to create formulaic rules, similar to algebraic expressions. He composed around 3000 such short formulas to describe the rules of the Sanskrit language. His work, known as the Ashtadhyayi, is considered a masterpiece of linguistic analysis and forms the basis of classical Sanskrit grammar.

Jainism

Around the same time (about 2500 years ago), the last and 24th tirthankara (great teacher) of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message. Mahavira was a kshatriya prince belonging to the Lichchhavis, a group that was part of the Vajji sangha (as discussed in Chapter 5).

At the age of thirty, Mahavira renounced his home to live in a forest, leading a difficult and solitary life for twelve years. At the end of this period, he attained enlightenment.

Teachings of Mahavira

Mahavira taught a simple doctrine:

• Men and women seeking the truth must leave their homes and lead ascetic lives.
• They must strictly follow the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing any living being. Mahavira famously stated, "All beings long to live. To all things life is dear."

Mahavira and his followers used Prakrit, the language of ordinary people, to spread their teachings, making it accessible to a wide audience. Different forms of Prakrit were used in various regions, named after the areas where they were spoken (e.g., Magadhi in Magadha).

Followers of Mahavira, known as Jainas, were expected to lead very simple lives, often begging for food. They were required to be absolutely honest, specifically avoiding stealing, and observe celibacy. Men who joined the order had to give up all possessions, including their clothes.

Following these strict rules was challenging for most people. Nevertheless, thousands renounced their homes to learn and teach this path. Many others remained householders but supported the monks and nuns by providing them with food.

Jainism found support mainly among **traders**. Farmers, whose work often involved killing insects to protect crops, found it more difficult to adhere strictly to the rule of ahimsa. Over centuries, Jainism spread across north India and to regions like Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka. Mahavira's teachings were passed down orally for several centuries before being written down around 1500 years ago at Valabhi in Gujarat.

Jaina: The word 'Jaina' comes from 'Jina', meaning 'conqueror'. This term was used for Mahavira because he conquered his senses and desires.

The Sangha

Both Mahavira and the Buddha believed that true knowledge could only be attained by those who renounced worldly life. To facilitate this, they established the **sangha**, an association or organization for those who left their homes to pursue a life of religious study and practice.

The rules governing the Buddhist sangha were compiled in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. This text indicates that the sangha had separate branches for men and women. While all men could join, certain permissions were required:

• Children needed permission from their parents.
• Slaves required permission from their masters.
• Those working for the king needed his permission.
• Debtors needed permission from their creditors.
• Women required permission from their husbands.

Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives, dedicating most of their time to meditation. They would go to cities and villages during fixed hours to beg for food, earning them the names **bhikkhus** (male renouncers/beggars) and **bhikkhunis** (female renouncers/beggars).

They also taught others, helped fellow members, and held meetings to resolve internal disputes. The sangha included people from various social backgrounds, including brahmins, kshatriyas, merchants, laborers, barbers, courtesans, and slaves, indicating a relatively inclusive membership compared to some other social structures of the time.

Many members of the sangha contributed to preserving the teachings of the Buddha by writing them down. Some also composed poems describing their experiences in the sangha.

Monasteries

Initially, Jaina and Buddhist monks and nuns traveled constantly, teaching people throughout the year. They would only stay in one place during the rainy season, when travel was difficult. At this time, their supporters would build temporary shelters in gardens, or the monks and nuns would reside in natural caves in hilly areas.

As time passed, the need for more permanent shelters arose, both among the monks and nuns themselves and their supporters. This led to the construction of monasteries, known as viharas.

The earliest viharas were made of wood, later shifting to brick construction. Some monasteries were even excavated from hillsides, particularly in western India (like the caves in Karle, Maharashtra), providing permanent shelters for monks and nuns to live and meditate.

Buddhist texts convey the idea that upon joining the sangha, social distinctions based on varna, rank, or family were abandoned, just as rivers lose their separate identities when flowing into the ocean.

Land for building viharas was often donated by wealthy merchants, landowners, or kings. Local people would bring gifts of food, clothing, and medicines for the monks and nuns, and in return, the monks and nuns would teach them. Over centuries, Buddhism spread to various parts of the subcontinent and beyond.

The System Of Ashramas

Around the period when Jainism and Buddhism were gaining popularity, brahmins developed a system known as ashramas. In this context, the word 'ashrama' does not refer to a physical place but rather to a stage of life.

Four ashramas were recognized, outlining different phases of a man's life:

1. Brahmacharya: The initial stage, during which Brahmin, Kshatriya, and Vaishya men were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas.
2. Grihastha: The householder stage. After completing the Brahmacharya stage, men were expected to marry and live as householders, raising a family.
3. Vanaprastha: The forest dweller stage. After fulfilling their duties as householders, men were expected to live in the forest and engage in meditation.
4. Samnyasa: The renunciation stage. The final stage, where men were expected to give up everything and become ascetics (samnyasins).

The system of ashramas provided a framework for men to dedicate specific parts of their lives to spiritual pursuits and meditation. However, this system was primarily for men of the first three varnas (Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya). Generally, women were not allowed to study the Vedas and were expected to follow the ashramas chosen by their husbands.

Comparing the ashrama system with life in the sangha reveals key differences: The sangha was an association for anyone who renounced worldly life to pursue true knowledge, open to people from various varnas and genders (with permissions). The ashrama system, on the other hand, was a prescribed sequence of life stages primarily for men of the first three varnas, with different duties assigned to each stage, including stages for householder life and gradual withdrawal from the world, culminating in renunciation.

Elsewhere

Examining other contemporary cultures provides comparative insights. In Iran, around the same period, Zoroaster was a prominent prophet. His teachings are compiled in a book called the Avesta. The language and practices described in the Avesta share similarities with those of the Vedas, suggesting potential cultural connections or common origins.

The fundamental teachings of Zoroaster are encapsulated in the maxim: "Good thoughts, Good Words and Good Deeds." Zoroastrianism was a major religion in Iran for over a thousand years. Later, some Zoroastrians migrated from Iran and settled in the coastal towns of Gujarat and Maharashtra in India. These migrants were the ancestors of the Parsis community in India today.

Imagine

This section prompts an imaginative exercise: imagining a conversation with parents about wanting to listen to a preacher from 2500 years ago, requiring persuasive arguments to gain permission, drawing upon the historical context of new ideas and societal reactions.

Let’s Recall

This section contains questions designed to check comprehension and recall of key facts and concepts presented in the chapter, including distinguishing true/false statements and identifying correct answers related to the Buddha, Upanishads, and Jainism.